校閲者・コーディネーターの月替わりのコラム(2023)

2023.08.03 Editor: S. S.

The difference of prepositions

For Japanese students studying English, one area that often proves to be particularly perplexing is the use of prepositions. Prepositions play a crucial role in the English language by establishing relationships between various elements in a sentence. They help us understand the position, location, direction, time, and manner of objects, people, and events. While prepositions may seem simple at first glance, they can be quite nuanced, and understanding their differences is essential for effective communication. Here, we explore some common prepositions and highlight their distinctions.

"in" and "on": Both words express position, but they are used in different contexts. "In" denotes being enclosed or inside something. For instance, "The book is in the drawer" implies that the book is within the confines of the drawer. On the other hand, "on" refers to being in contact with the surface of something. If we say, "The book is on the table," it means the book is resting on top of the table.

"At" and "to": "At" is used to indicate a specific point or place. For example, "I will meet you at the library" suggests meeting at a particular location. In contrast, "to" implies movement toward a place or direction. If we say, "I am going to the library," it means we are heading in that direction.

"Between" and "Among." While both words express relationships, they differ in terms of quantity. "Between" is used when referring to two entities or people. For instance, "The book is between John and Mary" signifies that the book is positioned in the middle of John and Mary. Conversely, "among" is employed when talking about three or more items. If we say, "The ball is among the children," it suggests that the ball is in the presence of multiple children.

"By" and "with": "By" indicates a means or method of doing something. For example, "The letter was delivered by mail" signifies that the mail was the method of delivery. On the other hand, "with" implies association or accompaniment. If we say, "He went to the party with his friends," it means he attended the party in the company of his friends.

"For" and "since": "For" is used to express a duration or length of time, as in "I have lived here for ten years." In contrast, "since" refers to a specific point in time or the starting moment of an action. For example, "I have known her since 2010" suggests that the acquaintance began in that year.

In conclusion, prepositions are crucial elements of the English language, facilitating clear and precise communication. While some prepositions may appear similar, understanding their differences is essential for accurate usage since each preposition carries a distinct meaning and function. By mastering these distinctions, we can express ourselves more effectively and avoid common errors in our writing and speech.

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2023.07.04 Editor: S. S.

The use of prepositions

Prepositions are words that establish a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. They often indicate location, direction, time, or manner.

Learning the use of English prepositions can be challenging for second-language learners because of differences in usage and structure between English and their native tongue. Here are some tips specifically for second-language learners to help with understanding and using English prepositions effectively:

1. Study prepositions in context: Rather than trying to memorize prepositions in isolation, focus on learning them within sentences and phrases. Pay attention to how prepositions are used with specific verbs, nouns, and adjectives.
2. Be aware of phrasal verbs: English has many phrasal verbs, which are verbs combined with prepositions or adverbs to create idiomatic expressions. Take note of phrasal verbs and their meanings as they often have unique preposition usage. For example, "look up" means to search for information, and "look after" means to take care of someone or something.
3. Pay attention to collocations: Certain verbs, adjectives, and nouns are commonly used with specific prepositions. Learning these collocations will help you choose the correct preposition. For example, we "listen to" music, "depend on" someone, and are "afraid of" something.
4. Read and listen to English extensively: Exposure to English through reading books, articles, listening to podcasts, and watching movies or TV shows will help you become familiar with natural preposition usage in context.
5. Use reliable resources: Utilize grammar books, online resources, and language-learning apps that specifically address prepositions and provide explanations, examples, and exercises for practice.

Remember, learning prepositions takes time and practice. Continue to use prepositions in various contexts to develop a better understanding of their usage in English.

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2023.06.02 Editor: L. R.

Punctuation and spacing

In written English, either British English or American English, as a general rule there should be a space after any punctuation mark but no space before punctuation. This sentence is an example of this, as follows: there should be a space after every comma, semicolon or colon; the same applies to a full stop.

Of course, as with every rule of grammar in English, there are exceptions.

When punctuation marks are used to enclose a piece of text, the punctuation marks are grouped with the text, and spaces are left on the outside of the group. For example with parentheses (like these) or when using brackets [like these] as well as quotation marks (whether single or double) to enclose spoken words, for example: the editor said ‘Leave spaces on the outside of the text group’.

Other exceptions are the dash and the hyphen, both of which are used without any spaces. A hyphen is used to join together two smaller words or parts of words such as prefixes, for example in pre-operative or inter-species, while a dash is used to connect different words that are associated such as the Venice–Simplon Orient Express or the Kruskal?Wallis test. A dash can also be used in a similar way to parentheses, to separate supplemental information. In any of these cases there is no need for a space at all.

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2023.05.11 Editor: L. R.

Title Case and Sentence Case

Title case and sentence case simply describe when and where to use uppercase (capital) letters and where to use lowercase.

Sentence case is the case used for all normal writing (such as this article).

Title case is, as the name suggests, used for titles, sub-titles, headings and sub-headings. However for a specific journal, authors should always check the journal guidelines as some journals prefer sentence case for the title.

In sentence case, the first letter of the first word of the sentence is written in uppercase (a capital letter), all the rest of the word is in lowercase, and all other words are all in lowercase (apart from proper nouns, which always start with an uppercase letter). The sentence ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark, then the next sentence begins with an uppercase letter once again.

In title case, all the major words begin with an uppercase (capital) letter. However small words-conjunctions, prepositions articles, and any word three letters long or less-begin with a lowercase letter, unless they are the first or last word in the title, when they should also start with an uppercase letter.

E.g., This is an Example of Title Case.

Care should be taken if using the formatting options in software such as Word, as there is a setting which automatically capitalises every word, so for title case this makes it necessary to change the smaller words back to lowercase.

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2023.03.02 Editor: R. B.

Between vs. from: When and how to use them

A common grammatical error in academic writing is the use of the words “between” and “from”. These words are generally not interchangeable.

“Between” indicates the space between two objects or places. In the case of numbers, it indicates a value higher than the first end parameter and lower than the last parameter. The word “between” should always be used with the conjunction “and” when two or more end parameters are being defined. For example, It weighs between 60 and 70 kgs.

“From” usually shows the point where something starts to the point where it ends. The word “from” is always followed by “to”. For example, Tickets will cost from $10 to $60.

Some examples in scientific writing include the following:
The surgery was performed between 2:30 and 7:30 p.m (Correct).The two end parameters (2:30 and 7:30 pm) are generally not included in the description. Moreover, it is not possible to determine the exact number of hours taken for the surgery, from this sentence.

The surgery was conducted from 2:30 to 7:30 p.m (correct). This indicates the exact number of hours taken for the surgery, and it includes the two end parameters. This sentence tells us that surgery was completed in 5 hours.

In scientific writing the range indicates the highest and lowest values of a variable measured in a sample. Thus it is the most appropriate to use the words “from” and “to”.
For example, The ages of the children ranged from 2 to 10 years.
However, you can also write it as: The ages of the children ranged between 2 and 10 years.

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2023.02.08 Editor: M. H.

Guidelines for Using the Prepositions “of” and “for”

A preposition is a word that usually goes before a noun/pronoun in a sentence and expresses a relationship to other words within the sentence. Many prepositions tell you where something is or when something happened.

Two commonly used prepositions are of and for , and like all prepositions, both indicate some type of relationship between words in a sentence. These prepositions are often misused because each can have several meanings depending on the context in which they are used. The main differences between these two prepositions, especially as they pertain to scientific writing, are summarized below.

• ・Means related to, and is most often used to show ownership or origin of something.
• ・Often used in a general or broad sense.
• ・Can also be used to help quantify something, identify a location, or indicate distance from something.

• ・Most often used to show a purpose.
• ・Often used in a specific sense.
• ・Can also be used to show a timeframe, a destination, or an amount of something.

Examples using the word of:

• ・All investigators were authors of the study. [ownership]
• ・Three patients died of liver failure in the study. [result]
• ・All measurements were collected six miles south of the impact zone. [location, distance]
• ・One subject had an elevated temperature of 38°C. [quantify]
• ・Six kilos of ethanol were added to the mixture. [quantify]

Examples using the word for:

• ・Twenty-five subjects were recruited for the study. [purpose]
• ・Descriptive statistics for vital signs are provided in the following tables. [purpose]
• ・The train would depart for Paris in two hours. [destination]
• ・These materials were mixed in one container for two hours. [timeframe]
• ・The cost for each unit was based on government guidelines. [amount]

Examples using the word forand of:

• ・All participants had normal values for vital signs, except for one subject with an elevated temperature of 38°C.

Additional notes:

• ・Passive sentence structure often involves the prepositions of and for, most of which can be eliminated by using active voice. This can also result in reduced word count.
• o[Passive] Example: The efficacy of the drug was measured by the number of individuals who had improved baseline liver values.
• o[Active] Example: Improvement in baseline liver values demonstrated the drug’s efficacy.
• ・Of cannot be used as a conjunction, while for can be used as a conjunction.

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